Issledovatel'skiy Zhurnal Russkogo Yazyka I Literatury

QUESTIONS OF TRANSLATION AND COMMENTARY ON “A JOURNEY BEYOND THE THREE SEAS” BY AFANASY NIKITIN

Alexander Bobrov — Sun, 16 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This article focuses on a crucial question for the accurate translation and commentary of "The Journey Beyond Three Seas" – determining the chronological framework of the travels described in the work. The article proposes a new dating for Afanasy Nikitin’s journey, placing it between 1467 and 1474. The traveler celebrated Easter on March 29, 1467 (Klin), April 17, 1468 (Chapakur), and April 2, 1469 (Hormuz). In April-May of that year, he crossed the Arabian Sea and by mid-September 1469, he reached Bidar. In March 1470, he embarked on a journey "towards Pervoti." In 1470-1471, while somewhere "near Pervoti," within the territory of pagan states, Afanasy could not observe the Holy Days, as he had lost track of the alignment of the current time with the Christian calendar. Afanasy celebrated Easter in 1472 and 1473 in Bidar and Gulbarga, respectively. He observed his last Easter during his journey home on April 10, 1474, in Muscat, and completed his life's journey under Smolensk in the winter of 1474/1475. The widespread popularity of "The Journey" in our time echoes the multilingual environment through which his path led. Afanasy passed through territories inhabited by East Slavic, Finno-Ugric, and Turkic peoples. Starting from the southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea, the traveler entered a different linguistic environment – the space of Iranian languages (Talysh, Gilaki, Mazandarani, Persian, etc.). It is possible that studying one of the Iranian languages delayed Afanasy on his journey between the Caspian and the Indian Ocean but later allowed him to successfully pass himself off as someone from the Khorasan region, where Persian was the most common language. Afanasy's route led from the ancient Russian principalities to the Kazan Khanate, the Great Horde, Shirvan, Gilan, and Mazandaran, and the Timurid Empire. In India, Afanasy visited the states of Gujarat, the Bahmani Sultanate, and the Vijayanagara Empire. On his return journey, he also visited the state of Ak Koyunlu, the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean Khanate, and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Many of the listed states were at war with each other during Afanasy Nikitin's travels, but wars, sooner or later, end in peace. The example of Afanasy Nikitin, who went through numerous trials and called for justice and peace in his work, remains important for his readers even today.

Extended abstract:

The article focuses on a crucial question for the accurate translation and commentary of Afanasy Nikitin's "The Journey Beyond Three Seas" – determining the chronological framework of the travels described in the work. The article proposes a new dating for Afanasy Nikitin’s journey, placing it between 1467 and 1474. The traveler celebrated Easter on March 29, 1467 (Klin), April 17, 1468 (Chapakur), and April 2, 1469 (Hormuz). In April-May of that year, he crossed the Arabian Sea and by mid-September 1469, he reached Bidar. In March 1470, he embarked on a journey "towards Pervoti." In 1470-1471, while somewhere "near Pervoti," within the territory of pagan states, Afanasy could not observe the Holy Days, as he had lost track of the alignment of the current time with the Christian calendar. Afanasy celebrated Easter in 1472 and 1473 in Bidar and Gulbarga, respectively. He observed his last Easter during his journey home on April 10, 1474, in Muscat, and completed his life's journey near Smolensk in the winter of 1474/1475.

First published in its original language in the early 19th century, Afanasy Nikitin's "The Journey Beyond Three Seas" has been repeatedly republished and translated (translations into at least 15 foreign languages are known: German, English, Czech, Polish, Hindi, Swedish, Italian, French, Spanish, Japanese, Danish, Turkish, Malayalam, Chinese, and Persian).

The widespread circulation of Afanasy's work in our time resonates with the multilingual environment through which his path led. Having begun his journey, most likely from Moscow in March 1467, Afanasy passed through territories inhabited by East Slavic, Finno-Ugric (Tver Karelians, Mari, Mordvins) and Turkic peoples (Volga Bulgars, Tatars, Nogais, Kalmyks, Kumyks, Kaisaks, Dagestanis, Turkmens, etc.). Starting from the southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea, the traveler entered a different linguistic environment – the space of Iranian languages (Talysh, Gilaki, Mazandarani, Persian, etc.). It is possible that studying one of the Iranian languages delayed Afanasy Nikitin on his journey between the Caspian and the Indian Ocean but later allowed him to successfully pass himself off as someone from the Khorasan region, where Persian was the most common language.

Afanasy's route led from the ancient Russian principalities to the lands of the disintegrated Golden Horde: the Kazan Khanate, the Great Horde, Shirvan, Gilan, and Mazandaran, and the Timurid Empire. In India Afanasy visited the states of Gujarat, the Bahmani Sultanate, and the Vijayanagara Empire. Finally, on his return journey, he also visited the state of Ak Koyunlu, the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean Khanate, and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Many of the listed states were at war with each other during Afanasy Nikitin's travels, but wars, sooner or later, always end in peace. The example of Afanasy Nikitin, who went through numerous trials and called for justice and peace in his work, remains important for his readers even today.

K.F. NEKRASOV: “MY WALK THROUGH PERSIA WAS EXTREMELY SUCCESSFUL AND INTERESTING”

Irina Vaganova — Sun, 16 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Many poets and artists of the Silver Age fell under the spell of the East. Book publisher and collector Konstantin Fedorovich Nekrasov (1873-1940), nephew of the poet N.A. Nekrasov, also did not escape this fate. It was his collection of Persian porcelain, dishes, tiles, manuscripts and miniatures that formed the basis of the museum created in 1918 in Moscow by the young Soviet government - Ars Asiatica, which is today known throughout the world as the State Museum of the East. But it was only by the 100th anniversary of the Museum of the East, in 2018, that it was possible to prove the authorship of the collection, its belonging to K.F. Nekrasov. This was done thanks to archival documents - letters from K.F. Nekrasov and the later discovered Persian travel diary, in which Nekrasov describes how they traveled from Tehran to Isfahan, how they visited excavations in Rey, how they were received at the consulates. The diary is kept in the Russian State Archive of Literature and Art in the collection of the Russian poet N.A. Nekrasov, the publisher's uncle, and, most likely, for this reason, it was not known to researchers of the East. The diary contains many names of those with whom Nekrasov traveled through Persia. Andrei Andreevich Balakin, a translator and great expert on the East, and David Abelov, who served in Tehran, are mentioned. The Persian diary of K.F. Nekrasov is a sincere view of a Russian traveler of the early twentieth century on the Persian land, its unique history, culture and people.

Extended abstract:

The allure of the East captivated not only poets and artists of Russia’s Silver Age but also prominent cultural figures such as Konstantin Fyodorovich Nekrasov (1873–1940), a renowned publisher and collector of Eastern antiquities. Nekrasov’s publishing house collaborated with many notable poets and writers of the era, but his closest partnership was with Pavel Pavlovich Muratov, an art critic and author of the celebrated *Images of Italy*. Muratov, who can be considered the ideological force behind the publishing house, played a pivotal role in shaping Nekrasov’s interest in the East. It was under Muratov’s initiative and editorship that Nekrasov’s publishing house released its first book: the Arabian fairy tale *Vathek* by W. Beckford, accompanied by Muratov’s insightful introduction.

Nekrasov’s initial curiosity about the East evolved into a profound passion for Oriental art, eventually leading him to become a dedicated collector. In early 1914, he announced plans for an expedition to Persia, specifically to acquire miniatures. Despite the public’s limited understanding of such art at the time, Nekrasov was confident that interest would grow. His journey began in April 1914, taking him to the ancient city of Rey, located near Tehran, and later to Isfahan. During this expedition, Nekrasov immersed himself in Persian culture, visiting archaeological sites, acquiring rare artifacts, and building connections with local antiquarians. His letters and travel diary provide vivid accounts of his experiences, including his interactions with key figures such as Andrei Balakin, a translator and Oriental expert, and David Abelov, a Tehran-based intermediary who facilitated Nekrasov’s negotiations with Iranian antiquarians.

The artifacts Nekrasov collected during this journey—Persian porcelain, tableware, tiles, manuscripts, and miniatures—formed the foundation of what would later become the Ars Asiatica Museum. Established in Moscow in 1918 by the Soviet government, this institution is now globally recognized as the State Museum of the East. However, for nearly 80 years, the origins of the collection and Nekrasov’s role as its creator remained obscured. It was only in 2018, on the museum’s 100th anniversary, that Nekrasov’s authorship of the collection was definitively proven. This breakthrough was made possible through archival documents, including Nekrasov’s letters and his recently discovered *Persian Travel Diary*.

The reasons for this long period of obscurity are multifaceted. Pavel Muratov, who played a key role in transferring Nekrasov’s collection to the Ars Asiatica Museum, had been in exile since 1922. Nekrasov himself died unexpectedly in 1940, leaving no opportunity to pass on his legacy or family secrets. Additionally, his travel diary was stored in the TsGALI archive within the collection of his uncle, the poet Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov, a repository rarely accessed by Orientalists. As a result, even as late as 1997, Nekrasov’s identity remained a mystery, as evidenced by the catalog *Moscow Collectors of Oriental Art*, which described him as an enigmatic figure with no known occupation or clear connection to his collecting activities.

Today, Nekrasov’s collection stands as a testament to his visionary passion for Eastern art and culture. It remains a cornerstone of the State Museum of the East, offering invaluable insights into the rich artistic heritage of Persia and the enduring fascination it held for Russian intellectuals of the early 20th century.

WORK ON STABLE VOCABULARY IN THE NATIONAL SCHOOL

Mehrinissa Nagzibekova, Ruzieva Laleh Talibavna, Andamova Humayun Ismoilovna — Sun, 16 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The article talks about stable free phrases studied in the national school. It is proposed that work on phraseological units should be carried out together with vocabulary work. It is very useful to compile a special dictionary, where the student gradually introduces learned phraseological expressions, arranging phraseological units associated with a verb by verb, phrases with a definition and a defined word - by the initial word, as well as interjection and adverbial phrases. By showing the types of connections in free phrases, the teacher must ensure that students can easily handle them, form them (find some adjective definition for a given noun, an addition for a verb, etc.), change them (put these phrases a noun with a plural adjective, put a verb in the form of the present tense, past tense, etc. in combinations of a verb with a noun), use them in coherent speech (make sentences with these phrases). Work on phraseological units should be carried out all the time and go from easy to difficult. When reading a text, the teacher should always draw students’ attention to stable phrases. The teacher’s explanations at this stage come down mainly to explaining the concept itself, expressed by a set phrase, and drawing students’ attention to the use of certain words in a particular phraseological unit that are usually understandable to them. Practical mastery of this material is also extremely important, because such phraseological units will appear quite often. When mastering a particular phraseological unit, it is important to point out the ability of component words to change the grammatical form. When working on phraseological units and set sayings in a national school, the question may arise about their translation and compliance with phraseological units of the native language.

Extended abstract:

This study explores the significance of phraseological units—stable word combinations—in teaching the Russian language in national schools of Tajikistan. Phraseological units are not only vital for vocabulary enrichment but also serve as a reflection of cultural identity, historical heritage, and national mentality. In an era of globalization, where foreign languages and cultures increasingly influence local traditions, preserving native languages becomes imperative. Phraseological units, which often lack direct equivalents in other languages, play a crucial role in maintaining the uniqueness of a language and its cultural nuances.

The research underscores that teaching phraseological units helps students deepen their understanding of both the language and the culture of their people. This fosters national identity, strengthens historical connections, and enhances students' speech culture, which is essential for effective communication in modern society. The study emphasizes the need for systematic integration of phraseological units into vocabulary exercises and language lessons in national schools.

The research methodology combines theoretical analysis of existing approaches with pedagogical experiments, surveys, observations, and content analysis of educational texts. The study is conducted in three stages: preparatory, main, and concluding. The preparatory stage involves defining the problem and selecting educational materials. The main stage focuses on implementing innovative teaching methods and conducting lessons. The final stage analyzes the results and formulates recommendations for improving teaching techniques.

The expected outcomes include improved mastery of phraseological units, enriched vocabulary, and increased student motivation through cultural and linguistic engagement. The practical significance of the research lies in its potential to enhance the quality of Russian language teaching in national schools, offering valuable insights for educators and curriculum developers.

The study also addresses the challenges of teaching phraseological units, particularly their metaphorical nature and the difficulty of translating them into students' native languages. Three translation approaches are proposed: conveying the general meaning, finding equivalent expressions in the native language, and providing literal translations with explanations. The choice of approach depends on the context, with literal translations being more suitable for literary texts to preserve the imagery of the original expression.

In conclusion, the research highlights the importance of phraseological units in developing students' linguistic and cultural competence. The proposed methodologies not only enhance language skills but also foster a deeper appreciation of cultural heritage, making them valuable tools for language education in national schools and beyond. Further research is recommended to adapt these methods for different age groups and proficiency levels, as well as to explore interdisciplinary connections with literature and history.

HISTORICAL TOPONYMS IN LITERARY TRANSLATIONS OF ANCIENT TEXTS

Irine Modebadze — Sun, 16 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0000

In ancient literary texts encounters the names of countries and cities corresponding to those that actually existed in the era of creation of the works, but was artistically reinterpreted by the author. In Shota Rustaveli’s poem “The Knight in the Panter’s Skin” (12th century) these are the countries on whose territory the main plot takes place: Indoeti, Arabeti, Khataeti. The article examines the Russian translations of Arabeti and Khataeti in the context of the cultural and political situation of the region during the Rustaveli era. The comparative analysis showed that, in contrast to translations of the 20th century, translations created at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries provide a greater opportunity to understand the geographical space of the text. Domestication is fixed from two main positions: hermeneutical translation and correction with the modern geo-political map.

Extended abstract:

Historical toponyms, as a rule, cannot be translated directly but are transferred through transcription or transliteration. In the publication of ancient texts, this challenge is often addressed through supplementary materials such as notes and dictionaries, which provide readers with the necessary context. However, when translating literary texts, additional complexities arise. The modern reader often lacks the background knowledge required to fully grasp the artistic and historical space of the text, yet rarely consults dictionaries or lengthy explanations. Furthermore, ancient literary texts frequently feature names of countries and cities that, while rooted in historical reality, are artistically reinterpreted by the author. Translators often perceive these not merely as proper names but as artistic images, employing various strategies to convey their meaning. This is particularly evident in Shota Rustaveli’s 12th-century poem *The Knight in the Panther’s Skin*, where the names of the countries central to the plot—არაბეთი (Arabeti), ინდოეთი (Indoeti), and ხატაეთი (Khataeti)—serve as symbols of the world order, complicating their translation.

This article presents the results of a study examining the variability in translating the concepts of Arabeti (Arabia/ Aravia/ Land of the Arabs) and Khataeti (Khataeti/ Khatay/ China) into Russian. The analysis is based on poetic translations by K. Balmont (1933), G. Tsagareli (1937), P. Petrenko with K. Chichinadze (1938), Sh. Nutsubidze (1941), N. Zabolotsky (1957), G. Devdariani (2004), A. Kxalvashi (2015), and K. Gulisashvili (2023). Arabeti and Khataeti are examined within the cultural and political context of Rustaveli’s era, including the history of the Delhi Sultanate, the Great Liao Empire, the Kara-Khitay Khanate, and the Turkish Hatay. A cultural-historical analysis reveals that Khataeti is a migrant toponym—a “transferred name” resulting from ancient migrations. By analogy with Arabeti and Indoeti, Khataeti can also be understood as a derivative of an ethnonym, with the translation “Khatay” (meaning “country of the Khatai/ Khitan”) being closest to the original.

One of the key conditions for selecting an appropriate translation equivalent and strategy is a deep understanding of the text. Therefore, this study emphasizes the correlation between the variability of translation interpretations and the chronological development of scholarly understanding of the poem. Notably, nearly all translators of *The Knight in the Panther’s Skin* consulted Rustvelologists, and the evolution of interpretations of Arabeti and Khataeti in translations aligns with the progression of academic thought—from viewing them as historical toponyms to interpreting them as religious and philosophical concepts, and from literal translation to hermeneutical understanding.

The comparative analysis demonstrates that the translation of historical toponyms in Rustaveli’s poem reflects two main tendencies: hermeneutical translation and alignment with the modern geopolitical map. This study, conducted for the first time, highlights the challenges and strategies involved in translating culturally and historically significant toponyms, offering new insights into the interplay between translation, history, and literary interpretation.

«TRANSLATION OF “RUSTAM AND ZOHRAB” BY VASILY ZHUKOVSKY AS A PHENOMENON OF TRANSCULTURAL COMMUNICATION»

Irina Poplavskaya — Sun, 16 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The concept of transcultural communication implies going beyond the boundaries of one culture and forming a special “transitional” space, in which different national cultures, different types of art, and texts in different languages meet. As a result, there emerges a special multicultural field, in which the individual, while preserving a national identity, is open to the influence of diverse cultural practices. Zhukovsky translated the piece “Rustam and Zohrab” from Firdausi’s epic Shah-nameh in 1846–1847 in the process of transcultural communication. The work on the translation went in several stages. Zhukovsky first read the Persian epic in a German retelling by the critic and publicist Johann Joseph Görres (Gorres, J. J. (1820). Das Heldenbuch von Iran aus dem Schah Nameh des Firdussi. Berlin: Reimer). Zhukovsky further read another German version of “Rustam and Zohrab” translated in verse by Friedrich Rückert (Rückert, F. (1838). Rostem und Suhrab. Eine Heldengeschichte in 12 Buchern. Erlangen: Th. Biasing). This book has been preserved in the poet’s book collection with his numerous notes in it. Zhukovsky’s translation of “Rustam and Zohrab” is a free imitation of Rückert. Its central episode is the duel between father and son. Zhukovsky enhanced the ethical pathos of Rückert’s poem in the translation, depicting a live human in the supreme ruler. Zhukovsky also introduced new episodes into the translation: the appearance of the maiden Gurdaferid before the dying Zohrab and presentation of the horse with the Zohrab. In these fragments, Zhukovsky largely relies on the leading images and motifs of his romantic lyrics and the tradition of Russian folk tales. Thus, Zhukovsky’s version of “Rustam and Zohrab” as a transcultural translation is based on an episode from Firdausi’s Persian epic written in Farsi, which the Russian poet perceived through the German language. The German source was the basis for the Russian translation.

Extended abstract:

The concept of transcultural communication involves transcending the boundaries of a single culture and creating a unique “transitional” space where different national cultures, art forms, and texts in various languages converge. This results in the formation of a multicultural field in which individuals, while retaining their national identity, become open to the influence of diverse cultural practices. A striking example of such transcultural communication is Vasily Zhukovsky’s translation of the episode “Rustam and Zohrab” from Firdausi’s epic *Shah-nameh*, completed in 1846–1847. Zhukovsky’s work on this translation unfolded in several stages, reflecting a complex interplay of languages, cultures, and literary traditions.

Zhukovsky first encountered the Persian epic through a German retelling by the critic and publicist Johann Joseph Görres (*Das Heldenbuch von Iran aus dem Schah Nameh des Firdussi*, 1820). Later, he read another German version of “Rustam and Zohrab,” translated into verse by Friedrich Rückert (*Rostem und Suhrab. Eine Heldengeschichte in 12 Büchern*, 1838). This book, preserved in Zhukovsky’s personal collection, contains numerous notes made by the poet, indicating his deep engagement with the text. Zhukovsky’s translation of “Rustam and Zohrab” is a free imitation of Rückert’s version, with its central focus on the tragic duel between father and son. However, Zhukovsky introduced new episodes into his translation, such as the appearance of the maiden Gurdaferid before the dying Zohrab and the presentation of the horse with Zohrab. These additions reflect Zhukovsky’s reliance on the imagery and motifs of his romantic lyrics, as well as the traditions of Russian folk tales.

Thus, Zhukovsky’s version of “Rustam and Zohrab” represents a transcultural translation based on an episode from Firdausi’s Persian epic, originally written in Farsi, which Zhukovsky accessed through German intermediaries. The emergence of Zhukovsky’s translation marked a significant event in Russian literature, as it introduced Russian readers to the epic *Shah-nameh* in an accessible and engaging form. The translation’s success lies in its ability to highlight the parallelism of individual plot motifs and situations, which reveal universal laws governing history, society, human life, and nature. These elements emphasize the epic nature of the text and its timeless relevance.

Zhukovsky’s innovative approach is also evident in his use of blank (unrhymed) iambic meter, which gives the translation a rhythmic quality reminiscent of prose. This stylistic choice contributes to the creation of a unique intercultural space, shaped by Persian–German and Persian–German–Russian literary connections. This space emerges through a process of “multiple” translation: the original text of Firdausi in Farsi, the prose retelling in German by Johann Joseph Görres, the poetic translation in German by Friedrich Rückert, and finally, Zhukovsky’s poetic translation from German into Russian, titled *Rustam i Zokhrab*.

In transcultural dialogue, the components of communication do not simply double, as in the case of bilingual translation, but multiply depending on the number of intermediary texts. In this instance, four texts interact: the original Farsi text by Firdausi, the two German intermediary texts by Görres and Rückert, and Zhukovsky’s Russian translation. This process involves the productive interaction of four authors, three translator-readers, three languages (Farsi, German, and Russian), and three cultures: Iranian–Tajik, German, and Russian. Through this intricate web of connections, Zhukovsky’s translation not only bridges cultural divides but also enriches the literary traditions of both the source and target cultures.

ON THE WAY TO THE GREAT EASTERN UNION: PERSIAN MOTIFS IN THE WORKS OF K.N. LEONTIEV

Olga Fetisenko — Sun, 16 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Outstanding Russian writer, philosopher and diplomat K.N. Leontiev (1831–1891) is now one of the most quoted conservative publicists. However, there are still many unexplored aspects of his legacy. Thus, the topics “Leontiev and Turkey”, “Leontiev about the Greeks and South Slavs” overshadowed the topic indicated in the title of this report. Like N.Ya. Danilevsky and at the same time Leontiev spoke about the historical need for the formation of a union of states that could resist the destructive tendencies of Western civilization. But unlike Danilevsky, Leontiev included in his Great Eastern Union not only countries professing Orthodox Christianity, but also Turkey, Persia, India and China. He looked at ancient history not from a European point of view. For example, in the history of the Greco-Persian wars, he was rather on the side of Persia, noting the discipline and sacrifice of the Persians. Already in the first years of diplomatic service in the Turkish Empire, through educated Turks, he became acquainted with examples of Persian poetry and even intended to study Farsi. This interest was reflected in his artistic work: in the cycle of “oriental stories” and especially in the novel “Odysseus Polychroniades”. In his historiosophical work “Byzantism and Slavism”, when considering the “historical age” of cultures and civilizations, Leontiev pays great attention to Persia. A deeper understanding of the Eastern Union project dates back to the 1880s, so we can say that the Persian theme occupied the philosopher throughout his life. The report is intended for the first time to summarize all cases of Leontiev’s contact with Iranian studies.

Extended abstract:

Konstantin Nikolaevich Leontiev (1831–1891), an outstanding Russian writer, thinker, and diplomat, is one of the most frequently cited figures in the conservative intellectual tradition. However, many aspects of his legacy remain underexplored. While topics such as “Leontiev and Turkey” and “Leontiev on the Greeks and the South Slavs” have received considerable attention, the theme of his concept of the Great Eastern Union, particularly the inclusion of Persia, has yet to be the subject of a dedicated scholarly study. This article addresses this gap, offering a novel exploration of the formation, characteristics, and significance of Leontiev’s geopolitical vision, with a focus on Persia’s role in his proposed union.

The completion of the academic edition of Leontiev’s works and letters, published by the Institute of Russian Literature (IRLI) of the Russian Academy of Sciences, provides a comprehensive basis for systematizing his geopolitical views and tracing his engagement with Iranian studies. The article draws not only on Leontiev’s well-known historiosophic works but also on his novels, novellas, and personal correspondence. Leontiev’s concept of the Great Eastern Union is compared with the ideas of his older contemporary, Nikolai Yakovlevich Danilevsky, as articulated in the latter’s seminal work *Russia and Europe*. Like Danilevsky, Leontiev argued for the historical necessity of forming a union of states centered in Constantinople, capable of countering the destructive tendencies of Western civilization. However, unlike Danilevsky, Leontiev expanded this union to include not only Orthodox Christian nations but also Turkey and Persia. He even ventured prophetic remarks about the potential inclusion of India and China, demonstrating a broader, more inclusive vision of Eurasian unity.

Leontiev’s perspective on history and civilization was deeply influenced by his diplomatic service in the Ottoman Empire, where he interacted with educated Turks and colleagues who were graduates of the Training Department of Oriental Languages at the Asian Department of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. During this time, he developed an appreciation for Persian culture, encountering Persian poetry both in its original form (noting its aesthetic qualities) and in translation. He even expressed a desire to learn the Persian language. This engagement with Persian culture is reflected in his literary works, particularly in the cycle of “Oriental novels” and the novel *Odysseus Polychroniades* (1872–1878). For instance, in the story *Pembe* (1869), a young Albanian bey, to whom Leontiev attributed some of his own characteristics, is depicted as familiar with the Persian language.

In his historiosophic work *Byzantism and Slavdom* (1872–1874), Leontiev examines the “historical age” of cultures and civilizations, paying significant attention to Persia. He revisits the theme of the Greco-Persian wars, arguing that the Persians, through the spirit of their statehood, exerted a greater influence on the Greeks and, indirectly, on the Romans than the Greeks did on them. Leontiev further identifies Persian influence in Byzantine civilization, extending this line of thought to suggest its impact on Russian civilization as well. This analysis underscores his belief in the interconnectedness of Eastern and Western historical trajectories.

The article concludes by highlighting the enduring presence of the Persian theme in Leontiev’s life and works. Through a series of examples and accompanying commentary, it demonstrates that Persia occupied a significant place in his intellectual and creative endeavors. Leontiev’s inclusion of Persia in his vision of the Great Eastern Union, his appreciation for Persian culture, and his reflections on Persian historical influence reveal a thinker who transcended Eurocentric perspectives and sought to integrate the East into his geopolitical and cultural worldview.

COMPOUND PARTICLES WITH THE COMPONENT “БЫ” IN RUSSIAN AND WAYS OF EXPRESSING THEM IN PERSIAN

Hadi Baharloo, Fahimeh Eskandari — Sun, 16 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The study is devoted to the study of compound particles with the component “бы” in the Russian language and the ways of expressing them in the Persian language, as well as to the analysis of the effectiveness of dictionaries in representing the exact equivalents of these particles in the Persian language. The analysis of the equivalence of Russian particles in the Persian language is made on the basis of 196 examples collected from translations of Russian works into Persian. The results generally indicate that dictionaries are ineffective at accurately translating particles. This is confirmed by the fact that the equivalents proposed by the authors of the article only in one case coincide with the equivalents proposed in the dictionaries. As a result of the analysis of particle equivalents in different sources and the selection of the most suitable equivalent, the article proposes 31 equivalents for 15 particles, which indicates the polysemy of these particles and the variety of linguistic means of the Persian language to convey their meaning.

Extended abstract:

This study examines compound particles in the Russian language that feature the component “бы,” exploring their expressions in Persian and evaluating the effectiveness of Russian-Persian dictionaries in providing accurate equivalents for these particles. The analysis is based on 196 examples collected from translations of Russian literary works into Persian. During the research, we compared the equivalents found in these translations with those provided in three Russian-Persian dictionaries: by G.A. Voskanyan, S.D. Klevtsova, and I.K. Ovchinnikova. Additionally, we referenced the *Descriptive Dictionary of Russian Particles* to identify the most accurate and contextually appropriate equivalents. These equivalents were then tested for accuracy using examples primarily sourced from the National Corpus of the Russian Language and the *Dictionary of Russian Particles*.

The findings reveal significant differences between Russian and Persian in terms of how particles are classified and studied. In Russian, particles are thoroughly analyzed and occupy a well-defined position within the parts of speech system. In contrast, Persian linguists often debate whether particles should be classified as an independent part of speech, reflecting a lack of consensus and limited research on the topic. This discrepancy poses a major challenge for translation, as particles are inherently abstract in meaning and highly dependent on context. These challenges are further compounded by the limited study of particles in Persian and the inadequacy of Russian-Persian dictionaries in providing accurate equivalents.

The complexity of translating particles increases when they consist of multiple components. Among multi-part particles in Russian, those containing the element “бы” are particularly noteworthy due to their high frequency of use and the nuanced meanings they convey. Key semantic functions of these particles include expressing desirability, uncertain assumptions, and uncertainty. Their modular structure and contextual dependency make them especially challenging for Iranian translators and students. In the absence of comparative studies in this area, Russian-Persian dictionaries remain the primary resource for translating these particles. However, our analysis demonstrates that these dictionaries are largely ineffective. Only one of the equivalents we identified aligned with dictionary suggestions, and many particles were entirely absent from the dictionaries, likely due to their contextual nature.

Through a detailed analysis of particle equivalents across various sources, we have proposed 31 equivalents for 15 compound particles containing “бы.” These equivalents highlight the polysemy of these particles and the diverse linguistic resources available in Persian for conveying their meanings. However, it is important to emphasize that these proposed equivalents are not definitive or absolute. The translation of particles is highly context-dependent, and their meanings may vary depending on the specific linguistic and situational context in which they are used.

This study underscores the need for further research into Russian and Persian particles, as well as the development of more comprehensive and context-sensitive Russian-Persian dictionaries. By addressing these gaps, future studies can provide more reliable resources for translators and students, facilitating more accurate and nuanced translations of Russian compound particles into Persian.

V. LEVSHIN'S WORK AND THE PHENOMENON OF THE "ORIENTAL STORY" IN THE CONTEXT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN FICTION

Darya Zavelskaya — Sun, 16 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The research is devoted to the translated story Veziri, or the Enchanted Labyrinth, which Levshin released with the subtitle Oriental Story. Russian fiction is interesting both in the context of the genre itself, which became very popular in Russian literature in the second half of the 18th century, and from the point of view of the development of Russian fiction during the era of sentimentalism. In existing studies devoted to the genre of the Oriental Story, three types are distinguished: 1) moral and ethical with religious overtones; 2) entertaining, adventurous, and gallant; and 3) educational. However, Veziri allows us to detect all three aspects, which is essential for understanding the general orientation of the fiction of that time and the very idea of the perception of the East in Russian literature. The history of the creation of this translation has not been sufficiently studied to compare Levshin's work with the original source; therefore, the style is analyzed as a characteristic example of Russian fiction. Levshin's choice is significant, as he is known, among other things, for his original literary fairy tales based on motifs and images from Russian folklore. In the Oriental Story, Persia becomes the setting, depicted not historically but in a legendary and fabulous manner, as an amazing land of miracles, heroism, high virtues, and mystical mysteries. It is productive to examine the concept of 'virtue' in this work, as it is extremely important both for the educational literature of the sentimentalist era and for literary fairy tales. In this regard, the increased emotionality of the narration and the characters' direct speech can be explained by the sentimentalist emphasis on comprehending moral principles through a sensitive heart. At the same time, miracles and adventures in the story serve as a moral test for the characters and a realm for comprehending higher wisdom, which was characteristic of the depiction of the East.

Extended abstract:

This research focuses on the translated story *Veziri, or the Enchanted Labyrinth*, published by Vasily Levshin with the subtitle “Oriental story.” This work is significant both within the context of the “Oriental story” genre, which was popular in Russian literature during the second half of the 18th century, and in terms of its contribution to the development of Russian sentimentalist fiction. While the stylistics of sentimentalist prose have been widely studied, the phenomenon of the “Oriental story” has received little attention, underscoring the relevance of this investigation.

Literary critics traditionally categorize the “Oriental story” genre into three types: 1) moral and ethical tales with religious overtones, 2) entertaining, adventurous, and gallant narratives, and 3) educational stories. However, *Veziri* uniquely incorporates all three aspects, making it a valuable case study for understanding the broader trends in Russian fiction of the time and the perception of the East in Russian literature. Levshin’s choice to translate and adapt this story is particularly noteworthy, as he was already known for his original literary fairy tales based on Russian folklore. His engagement with an Oriental tale provides an opportunity to explore the intersection of folklore, sentimentalism, and the “Oriental story” genre.

By the late 18th century, the Russian literary fairy tale was undergoing stylistic experimentation, and the influence of sentimentalism on this genre merits closer examination. While Levshin’s fairy-tale prose is often analyzed in relation to Russian folklore, his approach to fairy-tale plots differs significantly from traditional folklore storytelling. The translation and adaptation of an Oriental tale like *Veziri* offer a unique lens through which to explore these distinctions.

In *Veziri*, Persia is depicted not as a historical entity but as a legendary and fantastical realm—a land of wonders, heroism, lofty virtues, and mystical secrets. This portrayal aligns with the Romantic fascination with the exotic East. At the same time, Levshin’s authorial notes accompanying the translation serve an educational function, reflecting the didactic tendencies of sentimentalism. These notes provide context and commentary, enriching the reader’s understanding of Persian culture and history.

The image of “Fabulous Persia” in *Veziri* allows for a narrative rich in fantastical adventures while also conveying the philosophical depth of Eastern wisdom. The concept of “virtue,” central to both sentimentalist literature and literary fairy tales, plays a key role in the story. The heightened emotionality of the narrative and the characters’ direct speech reflect the sentimentalist emphasis on moral principles as understood through the lens of emotion and sensitivity. This storytelling approach, which can be termed “emotional reflection,” is closely tied to the sentimentalist ideal of virtue.

The analysis reveals that the story’s miracles and adventures serve as moral tests for the characters, as well as opportunities to explore higher wisdom—a characteristic feature of the Orientalist depiction of the East during this period. The portrayal of Persian culture is particularly striking: the treacherous Zoroaster is presented as an antagonist to Rustem, a valiant, wise, and pure-hearted warrior-ruler who embodies the virtues of a “golden age.” This contrast highlights the moral and ethical dimensions of the narrative.

The features of *Veziri* contribute to a deeper understanding of the development of Russian prose during the era of sentimentalism. They also shed light on the genre diversity of the “Oriental story” and its role in the evolution of narrative forms, including the literary fairy tale. By examining Levshin’s translation and adaptation of this Oriental tale, this study enriches our understanding of how Russian literature engaged with Eastern themes and how sentimentalist aesthetics influenced the transformation of narrative genres.

THE INTERCULTURAL FEATURES OF THE ADDRESSING OF FOLK LULLABIES (based on Russian and Iranian languages)

Zeinab Sadeghi Sahlabad, Komleva Elena Valerievna — Sun, 16 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The article is devoted to the study of the representation of the immanent category of addressability in the texts of folk Russian and Iranian lullabies. The relevance of this study is determined by the need to preserve lullabies through their study and detailed description as part of the cultural heritage. What unites the analyzed lullabies is their address to the child in order to influence him, to calm him down, put him to sleep, create a cozy and safe atmosphere, and strengthen the psychological connection between mother and child. In addition to signs of belonging to different cultures, lullabies also reveal intercultural characteristics, manifested in their intended use not only for the child himself. The range of addressees of the folk lullaby song was expanded to include not only the child, but also supernatural phenomena, the existence of which was believed, from which they tried to protect the child through the text of the lullaby, which sounds like a spell. The text of the lullaby also shows signs of self-addressing, when a mother, left alone with her child for a long time, uses the performance of the lullaby as an opportunity to express her worries and worries, thus getting rid of them.

Extended abstract:

This article explores the intercultural dimensions of addressability in Russian and Iranian folk lullabies, identifying three main types based on their addressees and content:

1. Traditional Lullabies: These are primarily addressed to the child, serving as an introduction to the world around them. The child is often addressed directly by name or through affectionate metaphorical terms, creating a sense of intimacy and connection. These lullabies reflect the mother’s role in nurturing and educating the child, embedding cultural values and norms from an early age.

2. Improvisational Lullabies about the Mother’s Life: These texts are addressed to the mother herself, expressing her personal concerns, emotions, and experiences, which may not always be directly related to motherhood. By verbalizing her feelings, the mother is able to distance herself from them, reducing her emotional burden and achieving a sense of detachment. This type of lullaby highlights the dual role of lullabies as both a means of soothing the child and a form of emotional release for the mother.

3. Improvisational Lullabies Addressing Nature and Supernatural Beings: These lullabies are directed at natural phenomena, animals, birds, and both benevolent and malevolent supernatural entities. The mother seeks assistance from benevolent beings to protect the child while pleading with or even threatening malevolent forces to ward off harm. This type reflects the cultural beliefs and spiritual practices embedded in lullabies, showcasing their role as a bridge between the human and supernatural worlds.

The study emphasizes that all three types of addressees—the child, the mother, animals, natural phenomena, and supernatural beings—are present in both Iranian and Russian lullabies, underscoring their intercultural correspondences. Despite these similarities, lullaby texts also contain ethnocultural features that reflect the unique traditions, customs, and historical contexts of each nation. This duality highlights the importance of considering both universal and culture-specific elements when analyzing lullabies.

The multifaceted nature of addressability in lullabies is a key focus of the research. While their primary function is to soothe the child, lullabies also serve as a medium for introducing the child to the world, expressing the mother’s emotions, and conveying cultural beliefs and practices. The performance of lullabies, typically by the mother, strengthens the psychological bond between mother and child, creating a shared emotional and cultural space.

In both Iranian and Russian cultures, lullabies often incorporate religious motifs, invoking divine protection for the child. They also frequently employ metaphorical language, comparing children to flowers or other precious objects. However, Russian lullabies tend to use direct naming more often than Iranian ones, reflecting subtle linguistic and cultural differences.

The study concludes that lullabies, as a form of folk art, encapsulate and transmit cultural values, beliefs, and social structures while fulfilling their primary purpose of soothing children to sleep. This comparative analysis of Iranian and Russian lullabies enhances our understanding of the universal aspects of maternal care as well as the specific cultural expressions found in different societies. It reveals the rich tapestry of human experience embedded in this simple yet profound form of folk art.

The research methodology combines linguistic analysis, cultural anthropology, and comparative literature approaches. By examining both the linguistic structures and cultural contexts of lullabies, the study provides a nuanced understanding of how these seemingly simple texts carry profound cultural meanings. Furthermore, the research suggests that lullabies are not static cultural artifacts but dynamic expressions that evolve alongside societal changes. The gradual transformation of lullaby themes reflects broader social shifts, technological advancements, and changing family dynamics. The comparative approach adopted in this study offers a unique perspective on cross-cultural communication, highlighting the universal yet culturally specific nature of maternal expressions of love, protection, and hope.

TEMPORAL LEXICAL CYCLES OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE IN THE SYSTEM OF CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS

Tatiana Karbachova — Sun, 16 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The article is focused on conceptualization of temporal experience by native Russian speakers. The purpose of the study is to identify ways to conceptualize time periods that form time counting systems. The study is carried out on metaphorical images of temporal concepts expressed by members of entire lexical groups - cycles - groups of period of time names connected by semantic relations of sequence and recurrence. Syntagmatic analysis of names-constituents of the day (утро, день, вечер, ночь), week (понедельник, вторник, среда,четверг, пятница, суббота, воскресенье), season (весна, лето, осень, зима) and year (январь, февраль, март, апрель, май, июнь, июль, август, сентябрь, октябрь, ноябрь, декабрь) cycles allows us to reveal the implementation specifics of the basic conceptual metaphors of time ‘time is a moving object’ and ‘time is the space through which the subject moves’ in the Russian language. It has been revealed that an anthropomorphic metaphor, where time is likened to a living being, is one of the forms of understanding cyclical periods of time. In this case, comparison with the human essence occurs at the level of physical, mental, and behavioral characteristics. The names-constituents of the cycles are represented as subjects of living nature with a body that allows them to move, perform manipulations, make sounds, etc. (день глаза смыкает; лады весны перебирает апрель воздушными руками). The constituents of cycles, as subjects of living nature, are characterized by various physiological processes and states (неспешный день не проливает пота; дышал ноябрь осенним хладом), they experience emotions and have certain character traits (спокойный вечер; утро миролюбиво; день жесток), go through life cycle stages from birth to death (декабрь рождался; день умирал). Also, cyclical periods of time are conceptualized as discrete entities that can be subject to quantitative and qualitative changes (местная золотая осень уже слиняла под косым дождиком), as a substance (уплывало лето мимо), as a light source (угасает май; померк декабрьский день).

Extended abstract:

Time, as a fundamental dimension of human experience, has long been a focus of linguistic research. In recent decades, scholars have increasingly explored how temporal experience is conceptualized across different linguacultures. This study investigates the ways in which native Russian speakers conceptualize cyclical time periods, which form the basis of timekeeping systems. The analysis centers on metaphorical representations of temporal concepts, expressed through lexical groups—or cycles—of period names connected by semantic relations of sequence and recurrence. Specifically, the study examines the cycles of the day (*утро, день, вечер, ночь*), the week (*понедельник, вторник, среда, четверг, пятница, суббота, воскресенье*), the seasons (*весна, лето, осень, зима*), and the months of the year (*январь, февраль, март, апрель, май, июнь, июль, август, сентябрь, октябрь, ноябрь, декабрь*). Through syntagmatic analysis, the study reveals how basic conceptual metaphors of time—such as ‘time is a subject,’ ‘time is an object,’ and ‘time is space’—are realized in the Russian language.

One of the key findings is the prominence of anthropomorphic metaphors, where cyclical time periods are likened to living beings. This metaphor allows time to be understood in terms of human life experience, encompassing physical, mental, and behavioral characteristics. For example, time periods are depicted as subjects of nature with bodies capable of movement, manipulation, and sound production (*день глаза смыкает; лады весны перебирает апрель воздушными руками*). They are also characterized by physiological processes and states (*неспешный день не проливает пота; дышал ноябрь осенним хладом*), undergo life cycle stages from birth to death (*декабрь рождался; день умирал*), and exhibit emotions and personality traits (*спокойный вечер; утро миролюбиво; день жесток*). Furthermore, cyclical time periods are portrayed as socially active beings that interact with each other and their environment, transforming it in the process (*весна в окно стучится; с порталов март смывает хлопья сажи*). The anthropomorphic metaphor thus provides a rich framework for expressing not only temporal coordinates and dynamics but also events associated with specific time periods and their subjective evaluation.

The study also highlights the productivity of spatial metaphors in conceptualizing cyclical time periods. In Russian linguaculture, time is often imagined as a “life space” through which individuals move (E. S. Yakovleva). Cyclical time periods are conceptualized as segments of a path, with individuals transitioning from one period to another (*так и осень закончилась, и зима началась*). Time periods can also be envisioned as bounded spaces, such as rooms or containers, with events occurring within them as their contents (*То лето было грозами полно, жарой и духотою небывалой*). This spatial conceptualization emphasizes the containment and progression of time.

In addition to anthropomorphic and spatial metaphors, cyclical time periods are conceptualized as objects of inanimate nature. They are depicted as discrete entities or substances that move through space, undergo quantitative and qualitative changes, and thus convey the dynamics of time (*шел на убыль апрельский вечер; уплывало лето мимо*). Another notable metaphor is ‘a time period is a light source/fire,’ where changes in the intensity of light or flame symbolize the passage of time (*шел на убыль апрельский вечер; уплывало лето мимо*). When emphasizing the prioritization of activities during a specific period, time is conceptualized as a resource at one’s disposal (*суббота и воскресенье отданы зрителям; воскресенье потратил на высокое окучивание картофеля за двором*).

The study concludes that the use of multiple source domains—such as subject, object, and space—to conceptualize cyclical time periods enables the expression of diverse types of temporal information. These metaphorical models allow speakers to convey not only the sequence and recurrence of time but also the events, emotions, and subjective evaluations associated with specific periods. By examining these conceptualizations, the research sheds light on the intricate ways in which the Russian language encodes and communicates temporal experience, contributing to a deeper understanding of the interplay between language, culture, and cognition.

LISTING AS A DESCRIPTIVE MEANS IN «VOYAGE BEYOND THREE SEAS» OF AFANASY NIKITIN: THEME AND STRUCTURE

Gayane Hovhannesyan — Sun, 16 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The article examines listing as an important, characteristic and text-forming device of Afanasy Nikitin's «Voyage Beyond Three Seas». In this text the listing has its own special characteristics both at the level of content, themes, and at the level of structure. In both cases it is represented by a rich variety of constituent elements. The themes in the work, with all their diversity and richness, can be divided into two groups: a description of the physical and spiritual world. The scholarly literature on the «Voyage» has noted this division. We consider the coexistence of these topics in a single context, the features of their implementation. Regarding the grammatical structure of listing we address such aspects as the simplicity and complexity of constructions, the absence and presence of distribution, the presence of elements and lacunarity, etc., as well as the lexical content and functioning of lexical oppositions – repetition of words, replacement with synonyms, repetition of roots, use antonymy. Externally the features of listing come down to the length and brevity of the series. These are enumeration with homogeneous members and with a subordinate sentence in their composition, with quantitative characteristics in the form of numbers and with generalizing words «many», «a little», listing's that tend to lengthen the series with a maximum reduction of species and listing's ending with a generalizing word. Such syntax of the text speaks about the psychological characteristics of the author. In general he is characterized by attentiveness of gaze, vigilance, good memory, responsibility, curiosity, but the syntax, which is different in paceand intensity, speaks of his different emotional and moral states: different attitudes towards the objects described, internal tabooing of oneself during descriptions, surprise, admiration, joy, sadness. Those any of our observations of the monument lead to a psychological and ideological conversation about it. This always characterizes good and deep literature. The diversity and depth of the elements presented in the listing reveals the consistency of this technique in «Voyage», the importance of its role in constructing the content, rhythm and poetics of this text.

Extended abstract:

This article examines the use of listing as a significant, characteristic, and text-forming device in Afanasy Nikitin’s *Voyage Beyond Three Seas*. In this work, listing exhibits unique features at both the content and structural levels, characterized by a rich variety of constituent elements. Thematically, the text can be divided into two broad groups: descriptions of the physical world and reflections on the spiritual world. While this division has been noted in scholarly literature, this study focuses on the coexistence of these themes within a single context and the specific ways in which they are realized.

At the grammatical level, the analysis addresses various aspects of listing, including the simplicity and complexity of constructions, the presence or absence of distribution, the inclusion or omission of elements (lacunarity), and the lexical content of the lists. Special attention is given to lexical oppositions, such as the repetition of words, the use of synonyms, the repetition of roots, and the employment of antonymy. Externally, the features of listing manifest in the length and brevity of the series. These include enumerations with homogeneous members, subordinate clauses, quantitative characteristics (numbers), and generalizing words like “many” or “a little.” Some lists tend to extend the series while minimizing specificity, while others conclude with a summarizing word.

The syntactic structure of the text reveals psychological insights into the author. Nikitin’s writing demonstrates attentiveness, vigilance, a strong memory, a sense of responsibility, and curiosity. However, the varying pace and intensity of the syntax also reflect his shifting emotional and moral states: differing attitudes toward the objects described, moments of self-restraint, surprise, admiration, joy, and sadness. These observations invite a psychological and ideological interpretation of the text, a hallmark of profound and meaningful literature.

The diversity and depth of the elements presented through listing underscore its consistency as a technique in *Voyage Beyond Three Seas* and its crucial role in shaping the content, rhythm, and poetics of the text. Early scholars of the *Voyage* noted Nikitin’s inquisitiveness, erudition, and keen observational skills. These traits are implicitly reflected in the abundance of facts and details within the text, a defining feature of the work. This factual richness is identified as the core of the monument, encompassing its content, style, structure, psychology, worldview, and even philosophical underpinnings. The figure of listing, as we term it, serves as the primary means of expressing this richness.

The article identifies several key grammatical models of listing in the text:
1. Homogeneous members of a sentence – compound sentences.
2. Sentences with the conjunction “a” – used in both connecting and adversative meanings.
3. Listing with numerical figures– contrasted with listing using descriptive vocabulary.
4. Listing with extensions or appositions – contrasted with listing without extensions.
5. Listing without generalization – contrasted with listing that includes generalizations or summaries (e.g., “all,” “many,” “few”).
6. Listing versus its absence – the presence or lacuna of enumeration.

This series of models can be further expanded, reflecting the versatility and complexity of listing as a textual device. Through this analysis, the study highlights how listing not only structures the text but also conveys the author’s worldview, emotional states, and philosophical reflections. By examining the interplay of thematic content, grammatical structure, and psychological depth, the article offers a comprehensive understanding of the role of listing in *Voyage Beyond Three Seas*, affirming its significance as a literary and cultural monument.

SEMINAL CONTENT OF PREPOSITIONS-APPROXIMATORS IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND THEIR CORRELATES IN THE PERSIAN LANGUAGE

Majid Estiri — Sun, 16 Feb 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The article is devoted to the consideration of the semantic content of units of the approximate type, i.e. prepositions-approximators in the Russian language and their correlates in the Persian language. In the Russian language, prepositions-approximators are used in situations characteristic of them, but in the Persian language the lexical meaning of approximation is expressed by synonymous words حدود، نزدیک، تا، حوالی, between the meanings of which there is no specific boundary. Also, the same Persian word with the meaning of approximate can be expressed by different Russian prepositions, the use of which can cause difficulties of a different nature for Iranian students. Thus, the noun حدود with the meaning of approximate can be expressed by prepositions-approximators около, с, под, порядка. The work pays special attention to the problem of distinguishing prepositions-approximators with the meanings of indefinite quantity, approximate quantity and probable quantity, the content side and features of the functioning of which have not yet been studied significantly in the Russian language in comparison with the Persian language. In the article, based on the visual method, visual means of the scale and the starting point on it, prepositions-approximators are systematized and ordered, their precise explanations of semantic content are given, the methods of their expression in the Persian language are studied in order to promote the conscious assimilation of prepositions-approximators by Iranian students of Russian.The novelty of the article lies in the fact that not only for the first time in Iranian Russian studies are prepositions-approximators compared with each other in relation to the point of reference and in terms of their semantic content, but also their Persian correlates are being studied. The results of the study can be applied to optimize methods of teaching prepositions-approximators in Iranian audiences and, accordingly, to further neutralize typical mistakes of Iranian Russian students and translators.

Extended abstract:

This article explores the semantic content of prepositional approximators—units of approximation at the morphological level—in the Russian language and their correlates in Persian. In linguistics, approximation refers to the use of inexact or approximate knowledge to explain concepts that are only partially understood or to simplify, adapt, or interpret information. Prepositional approximators play a key role in expressing such nuances in both languages, though their usage and semantic functions differ significantly.

In Russian, prepositional approximators are employed in specific contexts to convey approximation. In Persian, however, the lexical meaning of approximation is expressed through synonymous words such as «حدود» (hodud), «نزدیک» (nazdik), and «تا حوالی» (ta havāli), which lack precise boundaries. Additionally, a single Persian word with an approximative meaning can correspond to multiple Russian prepositions, creating potential challenges for Iranian students learning Russian. For example, the Persian noun «حدود» (hodud), meaning approximation, can be expressed in Russian by prepositions such as «около», «с», «под», and «порядка». This variability in translation highlights the complexity of approximative expressions across the two languages.

The study pays particular attention to the distinction between prepositional approximators that convey indefinite quantity, approximate quantity, and probable quantity. These categories, while crucial for understanding approximation, have not been thoroughly examined in Russian compared to Persian. The substantive differences and features of these approximators remain underexplored, making this a significant area of research.

The research material consists of sentences selected through continuous sampling from the «Russian-Persian Dictionary» by G.A. Voskanyan (2008) and the «National Corpus of the Russian Language» (NKRU). Additionally, the study incorporates recurring errors made by Iranian students learning Russian grammar at universities in Gonbad-Kavous, Bojnord, and Mazandaran between 2011 and 2024. These errors, collected from students at elementary, intermediate, and advanced levels, provide valuable insights into the challenges of mastering Russian prepositional approximators.

The study employs the following research methods:
1. «Continuous Sampling Method»: Used to select examples for analysis and to illustrate theoretical points.
2. «Comparative Method»: Applied to compare Russian prepositional approximators with their Persian equivalents.
3. «Visual Method»: Utilized to study prepositional approximators through visual means, such as scales and reference points, to clarify their semantic nuances.

The novelty of this research lies in its focus on comparing prepositional approximators in Russian and Persian, particularly in relation to their reference points on a scale and their semantic content. This is the first study in Iranian Russian studies to undertake such a comparative analysis, offering new insights into the lexical-grammatical field of approximation in both languages.

The findings reveal that the function of prepositional approximators in conveying approximation is not identical in Russian and Persian. Russian prepositions tend to describe the semantic nuances of approximation more precisely than their Persian equivalents. For instance, Russian offers a richer variety of prepositional approximators, forming a detailed lexical-grammatical field of approximation. In contrast, Persian relies more on lexical synonyms with broader, less specific meanings. This difference underscores the challenges Iranian students face when learning Russian approximators and highlights the need for targeted pedagogical approaches to address these difficulties.

In conclusion, the study demonstrates that while both Russian and Persian use prepositional approximators to express approximation, the semantic precision and variety of these expressions differ significantly between the two languages. The research contributes to a deeper understanding of approximation as a linguistic phenomenon and provides a foundation for further comparative studies in this area. By shedding light on the semantic and functional differences between Russian and Persian approximators, the study offers valuable insights for both linguists and language educators.